Psychophysiological insights and user perspectives: enhancing police de-escalation skills through full-body VR training

TYPE Original Research PUBLISHED 04 September 2024 DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 Psychophysiological insights and OPEN ACCESS user perspectives: enhancing police de-escalation skills EDITED BY Luke Wilkins, La Trobe University, Australia REVIEWED BY Bryce Jenkins, through full-body VR training Carleton University, Canada Ancret Szpak, University of South Australia, Australia John E. Muñoz 1,2*, Jennifer A. Lavoie 3 and Alan T. Pope 4 *CORRESPONDENCE 1 Department of Liberal Arts, Wilfrid Laurier University, Brantford, ON, Canada, 2 Department of Systems John E. Muñoz Design Engineering and The Games Institute, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, john.munoz.hci@uwaterloo.ca 3 Departments of Criminology and Psychology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Brantford, ON, Canada, 4 NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, VA, United States RECEIVED 28 March 2024 ACCEPTED 26 July 2024 PUBLISHED 04 September 2024 In recent years, Virtual Reality (VR) has emerged as a promising tool for enhancing CITATION training responses in high-stress professions, notably among police officers. Muñoz JE, Lavoie JA and Pope AT (2024) Psychophysiological insights and user This study investigates the psychophysiological responses and subjective user perspectives: enhancing police de-escalation experience of active police officers undergoing Mental Health Crisis Response skills through full-body VR training. (MHCR) training using an immersive full-body VR system. A total of 10 active Front. Psychol. 15:1390677. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 police officers with Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) training participated in our controlled study. Officers independently took part in one VR training session COPYRIGHT © 2024 Muñoz, Lavoie and Pope. This is an lasting 7–12 min involving an avatar in crisis portrayed by an actor. Officers wore open-access article distributed under the integrated cardiovascular and electrodermal activity measurement devices for terms of the Creative Commons Attribution physiological monitoring. VR user experience aspects such as induced symptoms License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, or game mechanics were investigated upon completing the training, aiming to provided the original author(s) and the evaluate the officer’s perceptions of the technology. We used the DePICT™ copyright owner(s) are credited and that the scale to evaluate the de-escalation skills of officers, coded by a research original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic professional. Our findings revealed significant differences in heart rate and practice. No use, distribution or reproduction heart rate variability responses between baseline and VR scenario immersion, is permitted which does not comply with suggesting heightened stress regulation during the MHCR simulation using full- these terms. body VR. Arousal measurements also revealed measurable responses during the training in VR. Additionally, the user experience assessment indicated a positive reception to the VR training, with minimal VR-induced symptoms. A “Defensive- Dynamics-Dichotomy” was revealed highlighting dominant autonomic responses linked to defensive actions (e.g., officers who drew a weapon; those who kept their weapons holstered) and their respective implications for stress management and cognitive function. A unique constellation of de-escalation skills was revealed among officers who relied on weapons relative to those who did not, to resolve the scenario. The study highlighted the perceived utility of physiological monitoring technologies in enhancing police training outcomes. In conclusion, our research underscores the potential of VR as an effective tool for de-escalation training following MHCR simulated scenarios among active police officers, offering insights into its psychophysiological impact and user experience. The findings contribute to improving our understanding of the physiology associated with decision-making in police officers to draw a weapon, emphasizing the role of advanced simulation and physiological monitoring technology in developing evidence-based training programs for public safety. KEYWORDS virtual reality, police training, mental health crisis, psychophysiology, user experience, de-escalation Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 1 Introduction responses of police officers to VR scenario training is of value since simulation technologies are now widely used in many police In high-stakes law enforcement training, the ability to respond departments (Andersen et al., 2020; Kleygrewe, 2023) and there is effectively to mental health crises is as critical as it is challenging. little evidence of its effectiveness in generating measurable body Traditional training methods for mental health crisis response have responses, which could explain associated psychological phenomena often fallen short in preparing officers for the dynamic and emotionally such as stress (Giannakakis et al., 2019). This is especially true for charged nature of these encounters (Dubé, 2016). Evidence suggests police training to respond to mental health crises, where subconscious that police officers receive insufficient training in responding to elements such as the officer’s implicit biases, perception of threat, or mental health calls for service and have training gaps in fundamental health-related components such as fitness levels, can dramatically de-escalation skills (Coleman and Cotton, 2014). Consequently, police impact an officer’s performance during these calls. Investigating those responses to people with mental illness tend to result in higher use-of- responses could potentially reveal training gaps in relevant aspects force incidents (Morabito et al., 2018; Hallett et al., 2021), including such as decision-making, situational awareness, self-regulation, stress lethal force (Lorey and Fegert, 2021), compared to those without management, and cognitive readiness among many others. Since reported mental illness. Initiatives towards creating more informed stress significantly impacts police performance, understanding the and contextualized training for law enforcement officers to respond to physiological responses to stress is crucial for developing effective mental health crises have been piloted, revealing promising results in training programs that prepare officers for real-world situations (Di de-escalation skills improvement and potential for reducing Nota and Huhta, 2019). unnecessary force in police interactions (Lavoie et al., 2022, 2023). This study seeks to fill that void by examining the Adequately designed training is necessary for developing the best psychophysiological responses and subjective experiences of active possible practices in policing when addressing individuals with mental police officers engaged in VR-based mental health crisis training health disorders (Lavoie et al., 2022). The advent of technological scenarios. Utilizing an immersive full-body VR system, the research tools, such as Virtual Reality (VR), offers a new horizon in police investigates the intricate interplay between measured physiological training, promising an immersive experience that could bridge the gap arousal, stress regulation, and the perceived usefulness and induced between theoretical knowledge and real-world application (Giessing, symptoms (e.g., nausea) of VR training scenarios. Next, we will 2021). The use of virtual reality (VR) training for police officers has provide a summary of the research evidence of studying body gained attention as a potential tool for enhancing training responses responses of police officers using VR technologies for a variety of under stress (Giessing, 2021). VR offers multiple benefits such as the simulations including firearms and de-escalation training. possibility to create limitless and highly personalized scenarios for training, enhanced safety in a controlled training environment, the realism and deep immersivity of the simulations, and the possibility 2 Related work of collecting rich data during the interaction for a debrief session with the trainees. VR has been recognized as one of the most powerful Previous studies have investigated physical and psychological solutions to improve training in first responders and provide an training responses in VR, including heart rate (HR), level of physical effective way of preparing frontline police officers, particularly for the activity, mental effort, and perceived stress involving law enforcement demands they face in the field (Alanis and Pyram, 2022). Mental officers (Muñoz et al., 2020; Giessing, 2021). Research with a stressful health crisis scenario training has been found to be as effective in VR training scenario demonstrated that a stress dashboard, based on improving de-escalation competency acquisition among police bio-signal data, provided trainers with actionable insights via officers using VR platforms as more traditional live-action formats assessment of trainees’ cognitive states (Zechner et al., 2023). An (Lavoie et al., 2023). analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats While previous studies have investigated the physical and (SWOT) associated with the use of VR in scenario-based stress psychological training responses in police officers, there is a lack of training in police settings was conducted, with one recommendation research on the psychophysiological responses of VR training for being the study of real-time psychophysiological stress markers during mental health crisis response (MHCR) training among other training realistic VR scenarios (Giessing, 2021). In a VR firearms training domains, in active police officers. Psychophysiology is the scientific routine, trained police officers exhibited different brainwave activity study of the interactions between psychological processes and and heart rate variability (HRV) parameters between resting vs. active physiological systems (Cacioppo et al., 2007). Central to this field are shooting conditions, providing a basis for a psychophysiological the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which form model for firearms training (Muñoz et al., 2020). The study used a the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system combination of multiple physiological signals describing sympathetic orchestrates the “fight-or-flight” response, preparing the body for (fight and flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) responses action in stressful situations by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, analyzed with behavioral data from the simulation and subjective and respiration, among other functions. Conversely, the ratings collected after the simulation. Similar results were found in a parasympathetic nervous system facilitates the “rest-and-digest” firearm simulation scenario in VR involving civilians with minimal response, promoting relaxation and energy conservation by decreasing levels of gun training (Muñoz et al., 2019). Another study investigated heart rate and stimulating digestion (Cacioppo et al., 2007). Several the physiological responses of police officers to audio-visual stress scientific articles have studied the physiological responses of police cues in VR based on HRV and HR responses; in particular, a stress officers in various situations, including general-duty police encounters dashboard was developed for monitoring trainees’ stress levels during (Baldwin et al., 2019) and the psychological impact of COVID-19 on the training for them to be included in a debriefing (Zechner et al., police officers (Tehrani, 2022). Studying psychophysiological 2023). The combination of VR and real-time physiological feedback Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 (e.g., biofeedback) presents opportunities to improve self-regulation 3 Methodology and stress management training since officers could be more aware of their body signals and adapt their reactions accordingly (De Witte 3.1 System setup et al., 2019). Previous studies have shown clear and objective evidence of the importance of physiologically focused interventions in reducing A full-body immersive VR setup was used to create a realistic errors in lethal force decision-making in active police officers in scenario for the mental health crisis simulation. The Refense1 system Canada (Andersen et al., 2018). uses motion capture cameras and trackers which allow officers to have A study examined how officers’ HR varied with the phase (e.g., a realistic and immersive experience. Officers are equipped with a VR encountering a subject) of a general duty call for service as well as HMD (HTC Vive Focus 3), and five motion capture trackers incident factors (e.g., use-of-force) (Hickman et al., 2011). In positioned on both arms, feet, and back. A microphone and audio comparing scenario-based training in VR vs. real life, police officers were provided via over-ear headphones, whereas an integrated replica experienced similar average levels of HR and levels of perceived stress handgun was worn in a plastic holster around the hips. A feedback with differences in maximum heartbeats attributable to differences in belt that creates electrical shocks was also attached to the officer’s the physical activity involved (Kleygrewe et al., 2023). This study stomach to simulate potential attacks and shots. Figure 1 shows the showed how VR is capable of creating measurable physiological VR equipment used in the Refense system. The VR system is set up in responses, comparable to the ones obtained in conventional a 15 × 15 m area. Two tables and one chair were physically located to simulation-based training scenarios. Another study was conducted match virtual objects and add realism. Two people were used to during a critical incident simulation. Police officers’ verbal and simulate the mental health call or service (i) a dispatcher agent who non-verbal communication and tactical skills, all rated by experts, communicated with the officer when called, (ii) a live actor wearing were not affected by elevated HR or change in circulating cortisol similar VR gear (no weapons or belt) to portray the person with a measured before and after the simulation. Better overall performance, mental health crisis. tactical performance, and nonverbal communication, but worse verbal communication, were associated with a greater increase in circulating antithrombin, a natural anticoagulant countermeasure to stress- 3.2 The mental health crisis simulation induced blood clotting (Arble et al., 2019). The results indicated that the effects of physiological arousal on performance varied, with some The Officers were instructed to use their police training to respond levels of arousal potentially enhancing performance while others may to a 10-min scenario simulation in VR. Officers listened to a brief impair it, highlighting the complex relationship between stress and dispatch describing a person in crisis who had summoned police to performance in high-stakes situations (Arble et al., 2019). Whereas his private residence for assistance. Officers completed the VR the study of human behavior, emotions (Marín-Morales et al., 2020), scenario individually. The character in crisis in this scenario was and psychophysiological responses using VR have been widely used portrayed as a white male, his early 30s, with rib injuries (see Figure 2). to investigate stress reactivity across different populations (van In the scenario narrative, the character displays Post-Traumatic Stress Dammen et al., 2022), it is surprising to find that, to the best of our Disorder (PTSD) symptoms heightened by cannabis intoxication. knowledge, no studies have been conducted with active police officers He is in crisis believing that the people responsible for invading his using physiological sensors to understand the underlying mechanisms home a few weeks ago have returned to attack him. He is irritable of stress and self-regulation during de-escalation training using (yelling, non-cooperative), fearful (shortness of breath, weeping), and VR. Studying psychophysiological responses to mental health crisis hypervigilant (continuously looking out of the window, asking the simulations and other police training in VR could provide valuable officer if anyone is there). Officers began the simulation at the virtual insights into the effectiveness of VR-scenario-based training in key front door of the residence, and the scenario took place inside a skills such as stress management and self-regulation, therefore hallway, kitchen, dining area, and living room in the residence. The contributing to the development of evidence-based training programs character in crisis was designed to demonstrate de-escalation supported with advanced simulation technology. Therefore, this study behaviors in response to officers engaging in de-escalation strategies has two main objectives: (willingness to help, active listening, reassurance, offering choices), and escalation behaviors when officers were not employing these • Measuring the sympathetic activation responses of a group of strategies (drawing a firearm, dismissing concerns, yelling, trained police officers while interacting with a full-body interrupting, returning to “triggers”). The scenario was divided into immersive VR simulation using a mental health crisis scenario. three main stages: (i) arrival, which occurred during the first minute • Investigate the perceived user experience and de-escalation skills when Officers were confronted with the character in crisis yelling at of police officers after being immersed in a mental health crisis them after opening the door, and initial survey of the environment for scenario involving an avatar played by a responsive live actor. safety risks, (ii) conflict escalation with a blunt object based on pre-determined triggers, the character in crisis escalates and creates a The results of this study aim to contribute significantly to the field safety risk by wielding a frying pan for protection, (iii) de-escalation of law enforcement training by providing empirical data on the and problem-solving, after reassurance of his safety, the character in physiological effects of VR training and its relationship to observed crisis relinquishes the frying pan and will agree to sit down. In de-escalation competencies when responding to mental health crisis calls. The findings could lead to more effective training protocols, better-prepared officers, and ultimately, safer and more desirable outcomes for both police and the public in mental health crises. 1 https://www.refense.com/ Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 FIGURE 1 (Left) Training center with physical prompts used for the VR scenario. (Right) Police officer and VR equipment used for the study. FIGURE 2 (Left) Overhead view of the VR scenario. (Right) Officer’s first-person view. Adapted with permission from Refense. response to questions, in a de-escalated state, he will provide learning training program that offers structured opportunities for additional cues about his situation (intoxication, recent loss) and officer trainees to rehearse de-escalation, officer safety, and desired possible resolutions (call a close friend). The scenario used in communication strategies across a diverse range of carefully crafted the study is derived from a series of evaluation scenarios that were high-fidelity crisis scenarios depicting a variety of environments, developed and produced through a community co-design approach characters, behaviors and situations. The program centers on the leveraging expertise and values from community stakeholders as well acquisition of core competencies related to relational policing, as police instructors (Lavoie et al., 2022). de-escalation, and mental health crisis response. The training was Subject matter experts from across major domains took part in designed to first deliver the curriculum by bringing learners through focus groups with outputs being (i) the development of a novel a spectrum of authentic crisis scenarios and using a group problem- conceptual approach to police responses to people in a mental health based learning approach. Officers are then allowed to test their abilities crisis (relational policing approach), (ii) a scenario-based experiential to effectively communicate, de-escalate, maintain safety, and make Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 ethical decisions under stress. After scenario completion, officers showing comparable results to measured responses in the palm (Van debriefed for approximately 10 min with researchers and a police Der Mee et al., 2021). The skin conductance level (SCL) was computed instructor, who observed and was always present during the using the Neurokit2 Python libraries (Makowski et al., 2021), which simulation training. reflects the overall arousal level during the session (also called the The study was conducted in collaboration with a local police tonic phase). EDA data processing included normalization of the data department in Virginia (USA). A total of 10 active police officers and noise reduction using a high-pass filter with a 3 Hz cutoff with special weapons and tactics (SWAT) training were invited to frequency. The Emotibit sensor has been previously compared against be part of the study. The recruitment was internally conducted by research-grade sensors showing good levels of accuracy (Langevin the instructor at the police department who offered a voluntary VR et al., 2021). training session to the active police officers with SWAT training at the department. SWAT members were selected due to schedule 3.3.2 User experience and perceived usefulness convenience with other tactical training happening on the same of VR and physiological monitoring day. Most of the officers had not used VR prior to the study (see Table 1). 3.3.2.1 Virtual reality neuroscience questionnaire (VRNQ) This questionnaire was used to measure the perceived officer’s user experience, it comprises 20 questions with a 1 to 7 Likert scale 3.3 Outcome measures (extremely low, extremely high) covering four categories called user experience, game mechanics, in-game assistance and VR induced 3.3.1 Physiological metrics symptoms and effects (Kourtesis et al., 2019). Several wearable physiological sensors were used to collect the body responses of officers during the interaction. 3.3.2.2 Perceived usefulness A custom-built questionnaire consisting of 6 questions related to 3.3.1.1 Cardiovascular the perception of physiological monitoring and VR training was used The chest strap sensor Polar H10 was used to record the to capture the officers’ opinions regarding the combination of these cardiovascular responses of police officers. It includes built-in technologies. The statement “From your perspective as a Law algorithms that were used to filter and calculate ECG parameters Enforcement Officer, what could be the most valuable aspects that needed to compute heartbeats and HRV parameters while streaming could be trained using VR and physiological sensors” was followed by data at 1 Hz. The sensor and proprietary algorithms have been six aspects and a 7-point Likert scale (strongly disagree, strongly optimized to accurately capture the responses of officers during agree), exploring aspects such as self-regulation techniques, learning movement (Plews et al., 2017). The main variable computed is called about body responses, unveiling potential physiological triggers, stress the R-to-R intervals (RRI) with units of 1/1024 s. HR and RRIs are management skills, ideal body responses for conflict de-escalation. captured using a proprietary and open-source tool connected to an The questionnaire was provided before the experience as a way to Android tablet which saves the data locally via Bluetooth Low Energy identify the needs and perceived opinions of officers before being (Quintero et al., 2021). The HRV analysis included multiple metrics exposed to the technology. that express overall autonomic nervous system activity (Ernst, 2014). The Neurokit2 Python library was used to conduct the HRV analysis 3.3.2.3 De-escalation Skills (Makowski et al., 2021). Extracted features include the standard The De-escalating Persons in Crisis Competencies Tool (DePICT™) deviation of the RRIs (SDNN) and the root mean square of successive is an assessment tool that measures a trainee’s demonstrated ability to differences (RMSSD), both features of the time domain. Similarly, de-escalate a crisis situation and highlights optimal skills integral to frequency domain parameters including high frequency (HF, 0.15– working with people in a mental health crisis (Lavoie et al., 2022). A 0.40 Hz) and low frequency (LF, 0.04–0.15 Hz) were extracted using collaborative community co-design approach involving a multi- the power spectral density of the RRI time series. The density is perspective team of subject matter experts, including persons with computed by using a Welch estimator with a Hanning window, and lived experience of mental illness, cultural safety experts, clinicians, spectrum components are averaged by an area-under-the- police instructors, and other stakeholders, was used to construct this curve approach. competencies-based instrument. The DePICT™ is a 14-item rater- observer assessment scale designed to measure core competencies in 3.3.1.2 Electrodermal activity (EDA) the areas of risk assessment and safety; self-awareness, regulation, and The wristband sensor Emotibit2 was used to record the activity of person-centered approaches; communication; identifying signs and the sweat glands. The sensor uses wireless communication (WiFi) to symptoms of mental illness and collaborative problem-solving. The stream raw EDA data at 15 Hz to a local computer connected to the tool provides a standardized and intuitive method of evaluating the same network. The sensor was placed on the non-dominant wrist of presence of target competencies during a 7–10-min evaluation officers to avoid discomfort and facilitate data collection. The validity scenario that takes place in VR. The presence of each competency is of EDA-based measures of the sympathetic nervous system from rated on a 4-point scale (0 = Absent, 3 = Proficient). DePICT™ scores wrist-worn devices has been demonstrated in previous studies, range from 0 to 42, where higher scores indicate higher levels of de-escalation, communication, and mental health crisis response competency acquisition. The reliability of the scale is high (Cronbach α = 0.89, N = 63, 14 items). A research scientist who developed the 2 https://www.emotibit.com/ DePICT™ tool used the after-action review videos recorded in both Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 TABLE 1 Demographics of the officers. User Gender Age Ethnicity Education Years of LEO Military Experience Use VR ID range service trainer veteran with MHC before 1 Male 45–54 White Some college, no degree 11–16 years Yes No No Yes 2 Male 35–44 White Some college, no degree 2–4 years No No No No 3 Male 35–44 White Bachelor’s degree (e.g., 11–16 years Yes No Yes No BA, BS) 4 Male 25–34 White Some college, no degree 5–10 years Yes No Yes No 5 Male 25–34 White Some college, no degree 11–16 years Yes Yes Yes No 6 Male 25–34 Black or High school degree or 2–4 years No No No No African equivalent (e.g., GED) American 7 Male 45–54 Black or Some college, no degree 17+ Yes Yes Yes Yes African American 8 Male 45–54 Black or Bachelor’s degree (e.g., 17+ Yes Yes Yes Yes African BA, BS) American 9 Male 35–44 White Some college, no degree 5–10 years Yes No No No 10 Male 25–34 White Bachelor’s degree (e.g., 11–16 years Yes No Yes No BA, BS) LEO, law enforcement officers. the virtual and live environment to replay each officer’s performance direct call from an individual at apartment 201. The caller sounded during the scenario and score them. The 14 DePICT™ items comprise: frantic, stating ‘they are trying to get in’ before disconnecting. Please proceed with caution, assess the situation, and be prepared for possible 1. Risk management: Contains, manages and controls risks. de-escalation.” The VR head-mounted display, audio headset, and 2. Time and distance: Slows situation down and gives motion capture hardware were connected to the officers. The Polar adequate space. chest strap sensor was connected to the officer’s chest. The Emotibit 3. Expresses concern for welfare: Expresses care and concern and was connected to the non-dominant wrist of the officers. After a willingness to help. connections, the Refense VR system was introduced to the officers, 4. Human connection: Builds rapport and personal connection. allowing them to go through the calibration stage and get familiar with 5. Paralanguage: Conveys calming voice, tone and pitch. the navigation, movement, interaction with the weapon, and 6. Respectful language: Uses terms that are non-stigmatizing and communication with the dispatcher. Equipment setup, calibration, respectful of the person. and familiarization with the Refense system lasted approximately 7. Body language: Physically models calm behavior. 15 min per officer. After the calibration, officers were instructed to 8. Self-awareness and regulation: Manages impact of own remain calm and steady for 3 min of standing with all the equipment presence and regulates self-arousal. to establish a physiological baseline recording. After the calibration 9. Active listening: Pays attention and demonstrates listening. stage, the dispatcher sent the officers a message via simulated radio 10. Mental health awareness: Identifies cues of mental illness indicating the start of the training. The live actor was prepared using or crisis. the VR equipment to embody the character in crisis in VR. Officers 11. Validation: Acknowledges person’s emotions and experience. completed the scenario between 7 and 12 min, after which observing 12. External Resources: Seeks external information and resources. team commanders were instructed to complete the DePICT™ 13. Collaboration: Works together toward resolution. questionnaire to evaluate the de-escalation skills of each officer. The 14. Transparency: Clearly explains decisions and answers questions. session was stopped either when officers were able to de-escalate the situation successfully or once 12 min were completed. The session was stopped by the dispatcher and officers were asked to complete the VRNQ form. A short debrief was conducted by the team commander 3.4 Procedure and data analysis after completing the session, mostly focusing on the after action review recorded in the Refense system and highlighting key moments After signing the informed consent, individual officers were and important feedback aspects for each officer. However, no analysis invited to be part of the study by completing a demographic was conducted of the debrief sessions. information form. Team commanders were invited to stay while In terms of data analysis, the physiological data processing was providing some context of the situation, following instructions from conducted using Python with multiple open-source libraries for the the researcher. Officers were instructed to respond to a dispatcher call processing of physiological signals as previously described. For the following this script: “Dispatch to Unit XX, we have just received a statistical analysis, non-parametric tests were used for analyzing the Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 HR and HRV parameters considering the non-normal distribution of system during baseline and scenario training in VR. Whereas the the data. Moreover, the median values are used to describe the user RMSSD and the LF/HF ratio did not reveal any significant differences, experience metrics computed using the VRNQ tool. The mean values the SDNN values were significantly higher (p < 0.05) during the of the DePICT™ scale were used for the comparative analysis of both scenario training in VR (M = 69 ms, SD = 30 ms) compared to the trainer and researcher scores. baseline recordings (M = 41 ms, SD = 17 ms) as can be seen in Figure 5. The increased variability suggests that the officers experienced dynamic shifts in their fight-and-flight (sympathetic) and their rest- 4 Results and-digest (parasympathetic) activity from the baseline to the scenario training in VR. 4.1 Physiological responses By using HRV metrics that reflect stress management skills (e.g., SDNN, RMSSD, and LF/HF ratio), we created a radar plot to compare 4.1.1 Cardiovascular responses: Stress regulation officers who had drawn their guns and those who did not. This Cardiovascular responses such as HR and HRV metrics associated handling of the gun is an important behavior that both reflected and with stress were analyzed (Kim et al., 2018). First, HR levels were influenced the officer’s responses and the unfolding of the compared among officers during the baseline and scenario training. de-escalation scenario. A total of five users (IDs: 1, 3, 4, 8, 9) drew Statistical analysis revealed that there was a significant difference their guns at some point during the scenario. We clustered these two (p < 0.05) in HR responses during baseline (M = 89 bpm, SD = 21 bpm) groups, normalized the values, and arranged each axis to visualize compared with the VR scenario training (M = 105 bpm, SD = 22 bpm). better stress management skills (e.g., the higher the axis’ value the The boxplots visually represent the distribution of these values for better stress management skills). Specifically, we inverted the LF/HF each condition (see Figure 3, left). Moreover, a visualization using heat ratio since typically, a higher LF/HF ratio indicates greater sympathetic maps was created to compare the officers’ HR responses during the activity and therefore higher stress. HRV metrics were averaged per VR training scenario. Officers 4, 6, and 8 exhibited higher HR values group and the resulting polygons were overlapped in the same radar compared to the rest of the officers (see Figure 3, right). plot to facilitate the comparison. Figure 6 shows the resultant A visualization comparing the baseline and VR scenario training radar plot. was created using aggregated data of the HR responses from the 10 The radar plot revealed a “Defensive Dynamics Dichotomy” officers who participated in our experiment. Figure 4 shows the HR emphasizing stronger sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous during baseline (left) and scenario training with VR (right) for the 10 system activations among officers who engaged in defensive tactics officers (gray lines), with the average line of the HR response (bold (e.g., drew a weapon) during the mental health crisis scenario. line) and the standard deviation (shadows). For the scenario training Alternatively, officers who kept their weapons holstered during the in VR, we have superimposed three images describing the three stages same simulation showed a more balanced response between the of the scenario and the live actor’s corresponding scripted responses. sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (e.g., greater values The visualization facilitates the comparison of HR responses during in LF/HF ratio), therefore suggesting comparably superior stress the baseline and the VR training (data was trimmed to the length of regulation and cognitive function. the shortest session to create the visualization). Additionally, HRV analysis was conducted using three variables: SDNN, RMSSD, and the 4.1.2 Electrodermal activity: physiological arousal ratio of LF to HF (LF/HF ratio) were computed to investigate EDA data captured from the officer’s wrists was analyzed to infer contributions of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous physiological arousal levels. Due to multiple technical issues involving FIGURE 3 (Left) Boxplots representing the difference between HR level during Baseline and scenario training in VR. (Right) Heat maps of HR levels displaying the individual differences of the officers during the scenario training. The asterisk denotes a statistical significance of p < 0.05 of the difference in group average heart rate between baseline and scenario training. Frontiers in Psychology 07 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 FIGURE 4 (Left) Average line plot of HR during baseline; gray lines represent each officer’s HR levels, the bold blue line shows the average HR and the blue shadow is the standard deviation. (Right) Average line plot of HR during scenario training in VR and the superimposed images show the three important moments of the scenario (arrival, escalation and de-escalation). Adapted with permission from Refense. FIGURE 5 HRV analysis conducted using time domain variables. (Left) RMSSD values comparing baseline vs. scenario training in VR. (Right) SDNN values comparing baseline vs. scenario training in VR. The asterisk denotes a statistical significance of p < 0.05. the sensor location, communication protocol (e.g., WiFi), and values greater than 30 points, therefore overpassing the complexity of the setup, data from only 2 officers was used for the parsimonious cut-offs and suggesting more robustly the suitability qualitative analysis. Baseline recordings (Figure 7, left) show EDA of the VR system to create a positive experience (e.g., very mild patterns of relaxation with a tenant slow decrease of the SCL during levels of induced symptoms and tutorials and instructions perceived the 3 min of recording. as highly helpful). Moreover, scenario training using VR (Figure 7, right) shows a constant increase in the SCL until the end of the session, displaying a 4.1.3.2 Perceived usefulness of VR and physiological purely sympathetic activation throughout the de-escalation process. monitoring Figure 7 shows both the baseline and scenario training normalized This custom-built questionnaire showed that among the 10 police line plots. officers, there was an overall agreement that physiological monitoring technologies (e.g., chest strap, wristband) were useful as a tool to 4.1.3 User experience and de-escalation skills improve their training skills (see Figure 9). Police officers perceived physiological monitoring technologies as particularly valuable as a 4.1.3.1 Virtual reality neuroscience questionnaire tool for stress management and identification of body responses The VRNQ data was tabulated and analyzed following the four associated with effective conflict de-escalation. established categories: user experience, game mechanics, in-game assistance, and VRISE (VR-induced symptoms and effects). Results 4.1.3.3 De-escalation skills using DePICT™ showed that the total of each sub-score met the minimum suggested In the analysis of tactical communication and de-escalation cut-off value of 25 points (see Figure 8). This result suggests that the techniques, the bar plot of the DePICT™ scale (Figure 10) reveals VR software (Refense) has adequate quality without any significant overall high scores in expressing concern for welfare and a willingness VRISE impacting the training experience. Moreover, two categories, to help, validating the emotions of the person in crisis, and the in-game assistance and the VRISE were found with cut-off approaching, containing and controlling the scene for effective risk Frontiers in Psychology 08 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 FIGURE 6 A stress management radar plot created to compare the cardiovascular responses of officers who drew the weapon with the ones who did not. FIGURE 7 EDA patterns observed from two officers (02 and 07) depicting the baseline behavior (left) and the arousal responses to the VR scenario training (right). management. The average DePICT™ total score for the sample additional information from other sources and leveraging (n = 10) was M = 26.5, SD = 5.73 out of a total score of 42. Officers who external units. did not draw a weapon had a slightly higher mean DePICT™ total Alternatively, officers who drew a weapon were marginally more score (M = 27.6, SD = 6.50) relative to officers who drew a weapon likely to focus on officer safety tactics, such as risk management (item during the simulation (M = 25.4, SD = 5.73). Contrarily, management 1) and increasing time and distance from the person in crisis (item 2). of time and distance, promoting a human connection, and using They were also slightly more likely to recognize and acknowledge the respectful and non-stigmatizing language showed the lowest average presence of mental health issues (item 10) and use calming scores among the officers. A unique pattern of de-escalation paralanguage to validate the distressed emotions of the person competencies was revealed among officers who relied on weapons in crisis. resolving the scenario relative to those who did not. Officers who kept their weapons holstered showed marked elevations in both verbal and non-verbal de-escalation techniques such employing calming body 5 Discussion language, such as using an open stance (item 7), using non-stigmatizing and respectful language (item 6), using active listening techniques, Evidence suggests that police officers receive insufficient training such as paraphrasing (item 9), and resourcefulness in seeking in responding to mental health calls for service and have training gaps Frontiers in Psychology 09 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 FIGURE 8 Bar plots resulting from the analysis of the VRNQ tool. FIGURE 9 Bar plots resulting from the analysis of the perceived usefulness of VR and physiological monitoring technologies tool. in fundamental de-escalation skills (Lorey and Fegert, 2021). 5.1 Physiological interpretation and Adequately designed training is necessary for developing the best sympathetic activation possible practices in policing and conflict de-escalation when addressing individuals with mental health disorders. The findings of The statistical analysis revealed that there was a significant this research provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of VR difference in HR responses during baseline compared with the VR training for MHCR in active police officers and contribute to the scenario training. The pictures overlapping the HR responses are development of evidence-based training programs supported with designed to facilitate the interpretation of key moments during the advanced VR technology (Starcke and Brand, 2012). We have training by indicating the cardiovascular changes of the police officers investigated the physiological sympathetic activation of a group of during the different stages of de-escalation as revealed during the VR officers who experienced a stress-inducing scenario in VR involving scenario. Higher levels of baseline or resting HR during engagements a live actor and multiple wearable technologies to create a highly in violent encounters of active law enforcement officers in the USA realistic scenario of an MHCR call. were associated with an increased risk of officers engaging in a violent Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 FIGURE 10 DePICT™ scale bar graph showing the differences between the scores of officers who drew the weapon and those who did not. altercation (Fox et al., 2018). Lower HR levels during stressful moments could remain throughout for minutes and even hours after moments are normally associated with better decision-making skills the occurrence (Baldwin et al., 2019). The literature on police among police officers. Studies have shown that physiological arousal, performance seen through the lenses of cardiorespiratory responses, as measured by heart rate, increases during police encounters, shows that, in individuals who experience threat-like situations, the particularly during high-priority calls (Baldwin et al., 2019; Andersen blood circulation is restricted in the periphery due to task demands et al., 2020). However, HR alone is not a reliable predictor of officer exceeding their coping resources (Kelley et al., 2019). performance, during sympathetic activation, HR and respiration The visualization comparing the baseline and VR scenario increase, and police officers are more likely to hold their breath, training showed that the HRV (SDNN) values were significantly limiting the amount of oxygenated blood coming to the brain higher during the scenario training in VR compared to the baseline (Andersen and Gustafsberg, 2016). Similar studies have highlighted recordings. SDNN is normally associated with the modulation of both the significant impact of stress on officer performance in critical the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which has situations and the need for effective stress management training, even been found crucial for important decision-making skills for police for experienced officers, suggesting that more nuanced measures of officers training (Di Nota et al., 2021). This finding is consistent with stress reactivity beyond just HR may be important for assessing the fear or sympathetic activation theories in psychophysiology and readiness and performance potential (Baldwin et al., 2022). Repeated neuroscience, which suggest that the sympathetic nervous system is exposure to stressful situations can also increase HR, highlighting the activated during stressful situations, leading to variations of HRV importance of allowing de-escalating rests between performing tasks. metrics and other physiological responses (Brisinda et al., 2015). Therefore, while elevated HR may not necessarily predict performance Moreover, HRV biofeedback training is a powerful self-regulation in police decision-making, it is likely to be helpful for officers to technique that could be integrated into modern VR simulations for be aware of their physiological arousal and use that information to police training, creating opportunities for more physiologically aware help control their emotions during high-stress situations. VR scenario- training and potentially enhancing decision-making and situational based training can be a catalyst for this awareness and control by awareness (Brammer et al., 2021). allowing police to be exposed to multiple stressful scenarios repeatedly. Moreover, radar plots were used to explore HRV and stress Moreover, de-escalation training programs could leverage VR management differences among officers who drew a gun during the technologies coupled with physiological monitoring devices to guide simulation and those who always kept the gun holstered. The LF officers in defusing critical incidents and help improve their ability to component of the LF/HF ratio is often linked to both sympathetic and de-escalate by self-modulating their physiological responses (Zahabi parasympathetic nervous system activity, while the HF component is and Abdul Razak, 2020). The results are consistent with the literature, predominantly influenced by sympathetic activity (Kim et al., 2018). showing the physiological signatures of stress and its impact on police The LF/HF ratio is thus considered a marker of the balance between officers’ duties, especially connecting how elevated HR from critical sympathetic and parasympathetic influences (also called autonomic Frontiers in Psychology 11 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 regulation), with a higher ratio indicating a shift toward sympathetic realism of the scenario involving the actor, created a very compelling dominance and a lower ratio indicating a shift towards simulation for MHCR training. A comparison across multiple parasympathetic dominance. Since we inverted the LF/HF axis to commercially available VR systems in Europe showed that systems reflect better stress management skills in the radar plot, we interpret like the one used for this experiment (e.g., Refense), offer a high that when an officer draws a gun, it generally indicates a heightened level of immersion and acceptance across police departments due state of alertness or preparedness for a potential threat. This action to the advanced technical features such as integration with motion leads to increased sympathetic nervous system activation, reflected in capture technologies and the after-action-review.3 Although little a higher LF/HF ratio, suggesting higher sustained stress levels. On the evidence exists around the overall acceptance of police officers and other hand, not drawing a gun might indicate a lower perceived threat trainers over the use of VR, especially for MHCR training, it is level, leading to lower stress levels and a more balanced or evident that interactive and immersive technologies such as VR will parasympathetic-dominant state, reflected in a lower LF/HF ratio. In transform the conventional training methodologies, creating new the context of stress management, officers who did not draw their tools for training important de-escalation skills such as empathy guns might have better stress management skills to face the stressors and interpersonal skills (Xie et al., 2021; Lavoie et al., 2023). Jenkins in the training scenario. The possible better skills are indicated by their and colleagues recommend that researchers move beyond shoot/no lower LF/HF ratios (reflected as a higher value in the radar plot), shoot scenarios where the correct decision is apparent towards suggesting they were able to maintain a calmer and more collected more ambiguous and complex situations, such as the scenario used physiological state. Better stress management skills could be beneficial in the current study featuring a person in crisis armed with a for decision-making and cognitive function, as excessive stress can weapon of opportunity. Progressing to the use of “gray” scenarios significantly impact these abilities in real-life scenarios. Similar results is valuable not only for training officers to better de-escalate were found in a recent review of stress monitoring in first responders interactions with the public, but also for disentangling the unique and tactical operators using HRV, where the LF/HF ratios were found effects of an officer’s training and/or personality on performance. to change during stressful moments with reported suppressions of LF For instance, “stress-based training,” which focuses on exposing and HF components due to sympathetic and parasympathetic shifts officers to physically demanding, high-stress scenarios and training (Corrigan et al., 2021). Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that other them to respond with vigilance, defensive tactics, force and phenomenological aspects of stress management could be used to weaponry may nurture a “warrior” orientation (McLean et al., 2020; explain changes in the LF/HF ratio. For instance, officers who drew Li et al., 2021). It has been argued that such a mindset may prime their weapons likely experienced higher anticipatory stress, officers to perceive non-compliant or disordered behaviors as more anticipating potential confrontation. This heightened state of alertness dangerous than they are, leading to the use of unnecessary force (Li would result in increased sympathetic activation and a lower LF/HF et al., 2021). Insights using complex crisis scenarios could lead to ratio. On the other hand, officers who maintained a holstered weapon developing safeguards against the use of excessive force or may have encountered fewer immediate stressors, leading to a more inappropriate deadly force in mental health crisis situations. balanced autonomic response (Tornero-Aguilera et al., 2018). Moreover, we also evaluated the officer’s perception of physiological Additionally, the results from the EDA analysis showed a sustained monitoring technologies and discovered an overall high usefulness increase, with the conductance level exhibiting an upward pattern, perception in areas such as stress management and self-regulation illustrating that the stressor does not wear off throughout the techniques. These results are similar to the ones found in a recent simulated scenario (Boucsein, 2012). This pattern has been associated study evaluating active police officers’ perception of wearable with situations where stressors are intense and users are constantly in technology to improve their awareness and understanding of sleep, a permanent state of alertness and physiologically aroused (Kelley well-being, and quality of life (Cox et al., 2024). Particularly, metrics et al., 2019), therefore clearly displaying a strong activation of the of HRV and sleep quality and recovery were perceived as a very sympathetic nervous system. Moreover, the simulation was effective valuable (Cox et al., 2024). in keeping officers attentive and aroused during the entire scenario On the other hand, officers 5 and 6 showed the highest DePICT™ since, contrary to conventional wisdom, EDA tends to decrease with total scores (both scoring 34 respectively), suggesting they very stressful or frustrating situations and this has been proven already demonstrated strong de-escalation skills. They also have relatively in VR environments (van Dammen et al., 2022). high HRV values, indicating a well-managed stress response during In summary, both cardiovascular and electrodermal responses the VR scenario. This combination of high DePICT™ scores and high recorded showed unique traces of both sympathetic and HRV suggests they performed best in terms of both de-escalation parasympathetic nervous system activity during the MHCR training competency and physiological stress regulation. scenario, demonstrating the capabilities of immersive VR to evoke In considering the patterns revealed in Figure 6, it is reasonable to measurable physiological responses in active police officers. conclude that officers who elect to draw weapons (e.g., an escalating action) might engage in additional necessary de-escalation strategies compared to officers whose weapons remained holstered. Interestingly, 5.2 User experience and de-escalation these results suggest that the display of force (in this case, drawing or skills pointing a service pistol) is not wholly inconsistent with de-escalation Overall police officers found the VR experience to be enjoyable and elements such as in-game assistance and VR-induced symptoms and effects were perceived positively after the VR training. Aspects 3 https://shotpros.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ related to full-body immersion, the use of weapon replicas, and the SHOTPROS_Booklet_VR-Provider_V1.pdf Frontiers in Psychology 12 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 efforts. Consistent with the radar plot showing that officers who relied law enforcement scenarios in VR. First, it is essential to confirm on a weapon experienced stronger sympathetic and parasympathetic distinctive physiological signatures between officers who kept their nervous system responses and lowered balanced stress management weapon holstered versus those who drew it, providing clearer insights and cognitive function, these same officers demonstrated into stress regulation and decision-making processes. Additionally, commendable DePICT™ skills. First, officers who relied on defensive comparing patrol officers with SWAT officers could reveal significant tactics to resolve the scenario were more likely to focus on officer differences in stress responses and tactical approaches, given their safety techniques, including containing and controlling risks, slowing distinct training and operational environments (Jenkins et al., 2024). down the encounter, and increasing distance from the person in crisis. Incorporating additional physiological measurements, such as These actions signal that the officer may have perceived the person in electroencephalography (EEG) (Johnson et al., 2014) and affective crisis as threatening, explaining sympathetic system activation. Given measurements (e.g., facial electromyography – fEMG), could further that these same officers were also more likely to recognize the presence explore aspects of empathy and emotional regulation. Finally, gathering of mental health issues, a threatening perception may have been more qualitative data, including detailed debriefing sessions with both bolstered through the potential activation of mental illness-related officers and instructors, will offer valuable perspectives on the stereotypes linked to dangerousness and unpredictability (Corrigan subjective experiences and practical implications of different stress and Watson, 2005). The marginally higher DePICT™ scores on self- management strategies. This comprehensive approach will contribute regulation efforts and self-awareness of their authority are also to developing more effective training programs and improving law consistent with the radar plot showing that officers who drew weapons enforcement practices. Some of the important limitations identified for oscillated to stronger parasympathetic nervous system responses (as this study can be summarized as follows: seen by higher values of RMSSD) following strong fight/flight activation. It is possible that lower cognitive functioning demonstrated • Small sample size: ten active police officers with SWAT training among officers who drew a pistol may be explained by either (i) can be considered as a small cohort for these studies. This may experience of fear or (ii) the requirement to continuously evaluate not adequately represent the broader population of law legal/policy adherence and liability implications connected to enforcement personnel, particularly those without specialized displaying a firearm. We found that officers who demonstrated better SWAT training or those from diverse geographical and stress management as evidenced on the radar plot, did not use as departmental backgrounds. The limited sample size restricts the diverse de-escalation strategies. Instead, they differentially relied on statistical power of the findings, making it challenging to communication techniques such as actively listening, using respectful generalize the results to the wider law enforcement community. language, and calming body language to bring the situation to a Nevertheless, it is important to consider that recruiting active resolution without the use of force. These disparities suggest differing police officers for de-escalation training studies is a common perceptions or emphases on certain techniques, highlighting areas challenging task considering the shortage of personnel and lack where training and operational protocols may need alignment or of availability of police officers in many departments and the further development. The directionality of these effects remains to novelty of the VR training. be tested, specifically, these patterns must be deconstructed to • Uniform and scenario mismatch: the use of SWAT uniforms in a understand the sequencing of effects among officers who engage in scenario designed for patrol services may not accurately represent defense tactics. Overall, the analysis underscores the necessity of the typical attire and equipment patrol officers would use in a consistent training and evaluation methods in de-escalation and mental health crisis response. This discrepancy could influence communication for crisis management, ensuring a unified and the physiological responses and decision-making processes of effective approach. participants, potentially limiting the applicability of findings to The observed shifting between the sympathetic and patrol officers in real-world scenarios. Future studies should aim parasympathetic activation during the VR simulation training can also to include patrol officers to accurately represent the be explain with what we call a “Defensive Dynamics Dichotomy,” population the scenario was built for. which highlight significant differences in autonomic responses • Ethnicity representation in VR: the ethnicity of the live actor between SWAT officers who engage in defensive actions, such as (male African American) differed from the avatar’s ethnicity drawing a weapon, and those who do not. This dichotomy (white male) presented in the VR scenario. This inconsistency underscores the critical importance of stress management in tactical may affect the officers’ perception and interaction within the performance. Officers engaging in defensive actions exhibited simulation, introducing a variable that could skew the heightened sympathetic nervous system activity, reflected in interpretation of physiological responses and de-escalation increased HRV and EDA, indicating elevated stress levels. In strategies employed by participants. contrast, those who did not engage in such actions maintained • EDA data analysis: due to some technical difficulties, the EDA more stable autonomic regulation, demonstrating better stress sensor corrupted many of the participant’s data, impeding a more management and decision-making capabilities under pressure. comprehensive analysis of this important physiological marker. These findings suggest that integrating stress management This situation certainly reveals one of the most common issues in techniques and real-time physiological monitoring into training physiological monitoring: the challenge of connecting multiple protocols can enhance officers’ ability to regulate their autonomic wearable sensors, transmitting using different wireless protocols responses, thereby improving their performance and decision- (e.g., Wifi vs. Bluetooth) in already complex VR simulation making in high-stress situations (Andersen et al., 2018). scenarios. We believe the WiFi of the Motion Capture cameras Future research should focus on several key areas to enhance our interfered the streaming of the Emotibit data, then corrupting understanding of physiological and behavioral responses in high-stress the signals. Frontiers in Psychology 13 frontiersin.org Muñoz et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1390677 These limitations highlight the need for careful consideration of Laurier University ERB (ORI: #8925). The studies were scenario design, participant equipment, and representation within VR conducted in accordance with the local legislation and simulations to ensure they accurately reflect the intended training institutional requirements. The participants provided their contexts. Also, the importance of carefully exploring data written informed consent to participate in this study. Written communication protocols and sensors during police training to informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the partially prevent issues with data collection. Addressing these publication of any potentially identifiable images or data limitations in future studies could enhance the fidelity of VR training included in this article. environments and provide more generalizable insights into the psychophysiological effects of VR training on law enforcement officers. Author contributions 6 Conclusion JM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Validation, Visualization, This study investigates the effects of VR training for police officers, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JL: particularly those with SWAT training, underscoring the significant Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding psychophysiological impacts of immersive VR scenarios on stress acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing regulation, arousal levels, and decision-making processes. By HR and – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AP: Conceptualization, HRV, this research highlighted the enhanced stress response and Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing cognitive function under a very stressful simulated de-escalation – original draft, Writing – review & editing. scenario, offering insights into the physiological dynamics of law enforcement personnel during mental health crisis interventions. A key finding, the “Defensive Dynamics Dichotomy,” indicates differing Funding autonomic responses between officers who engaged in defensive actions, such as drawing a weapon, and those who did not, pointing The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for to the critical role of stress management in effective tactical the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. performance. This study also revealed positive feedback from active police officers regarding the VR training experience, suggesting minimal adverse effects and a general acceptance of VR as a valuable Acknowledgments training tool. This acceptance is critical for the adoption of VR in enhancing police training outcomes, particularly in developing crucial This project was conducted in a training center from J&F de-escalation skills in a controlled setting. Broader implications of this Alliance Group, a company dedicated to creating realistic VR research suggest the potential of VR and physiological monitoring simulations to train law enforcement officers. We would like to technologies in creating evidence-based training programs that can thank the J&F personnel, especially Brandon Khan (operator) and fill current gaps in police training, especially in responding to mental Louis Parker (live actor) who put lots of hours of dedication into health crises. Such programs aim to improve law enforcement training this project. We would like to also thank all the police officers and methodologies, prepare officers more effectively for real-life instructors who participated in the study and helped us to make encounters, and ensure safer interactions with the public. Overall, our sense of the collected data. Finally, we would like to thank the contributions help validating the effectiveness of VR combined with Refense team which provided valuable feedback on how to create physiological monitoring technologies as a potent training medium in the de-escalation scenario. law enforcement, capable of producing measurable physiological and psychological responses. It encourages ongoing exploration into VR’s potential in expanding police training frameworks to encompass a Conflict of interest wider variety of scenarios and participants, ultimately enhancing law enforcement capabilities and public safety outcomes. JM and AP were employed by J&F Alliance Group. The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could Data availability statement be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The dataset presented in this article is not readily available due to privacy requirements of the involved police department. Requests to Publisher’s note access the datasets should be directed to john.munoz.hci@uwaterloo.ca. All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated Ethics statement organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or This study involving human subjects was approved by the claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or University of Waterloo ERB, (ORI: #44796) and the Wilfrid endorsed by the publisher. 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